Forsythe, Max A. A Public Education Course of Study (1975 - 2002)
A. INTRODUCTION: Why study the Great War? For all practical purposes, this century like the last did not begin at the millennial crossing. Just as the Nineteenth Century really began after Waterloo in 1815, so may we understand that the real history of the twentieth century began in the post war era, after the first of what came to be known as two world wars. Almost every social, political or economic conflict of this century can be traced back to the incredible blood letting on the battlefields of the Great War. Its memory framed the political posturing of several generations of diplomats, politicians and generals. The gross failures of the war making powers generated and fed a century of rebellion against any rightful authority systems and monarchial systems of government in particular.
Repeatedly the themes of the great conflagration surfaced in political tensions between the socialist and democratic heirs to the kingdoms and empires of antebellum days. Daniel Patrick Moynihan remembered the Great War in his commentary at the beginning of the last decade of the Soviet Socialist system in Eastern Europe:
"The Soviet empire is coming under tremendous strain. It could blow up. The world could blow up with it. Following the turmoil of the Russian Revolution, the new regime managed to reconstruct most of the polyglot czarist empire, ranging across Eurasia from the Danube to the Pacific. As the other great colonial empires - English, French, Dutch - were disintegrating under the blows of twentieth-century nationalism, the czarist empire, superficially transformed by the spirit of 'proletarian internationalism,' appeared stronger than ever. ... Then the infrastructure of the Soviet state sickened. ... Vitality at the center of the empire must be low indeed. Something happened. ... Now the nationality strains begin. Whatever Marxism may have meant to the intellectuals, it is ethnic identity that has stirred the masses of the twentieth century, and they are stirring near the Russian borders. ... The problem is that the internal weaknesses of the Soviet Union have begun to appear at the moment when its external strength has never been greater. ... Edward Luttwak has described the present Soviet situation ... The short run looks good, the long run bad. Therefore move. It was the calculation the Austro-Hungarian empire made in 1914."
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. "Will Russia Blow Up?" Newsweek. (November 79) p. 144
As of this writing, American and European troops are stationed in the Balkans, the very area where the sparks of ethnic competition set off the conflagration that prefigured and prophesied the struggles of a whole century. The very struggles and competitions which have yet to be finalized!
B. THE PRIMARY CAUSE of European War was the mismatching of political, geographic and ethnic boundaries which separated the ancient tribes of Europe into the more modern nation states. Political, ethnic, military and geographic points of tension included:
1. Alsace-Lorraine: These were two French provinces lost to Germany as a result of the Franco-Prussian War.
2. Schleswig-Holstein: These were two Danish provinces lost to Germany as part of the Austro-Prussian War.
3. Poland: This once powerful nation was repeatedly divided between the three royal houses of Austria, Prussia and Russia.
4. Bosnia-Herzogovinia: These two Balkan provinces were absorbed by the Austrian government as a result of a short series of Balkan Wars, between the Ottoman Turks and their former client states.
5. Austria-Hungary: This dual monarchy under the House of Hapsburg contained three alphabets, three religions and eleven or more language groups. The strains of ethnic nationalism challenged the ruling ability of the diets and autocrats of the Empire.
6. Russia: The House of Romanov ruled over seventy-some subject peoples inhabiting the vast stretches of East European and Asian geography.
C. THE SECONDARY and more general causes of the World War included several political, ethnic, economic and military trends which inflamed the primary causes over the last few decades of the nineteenth century.
1. Nationalism:
2. Economic and Industrial Imperialism:
3. Great Power Alliance System
4. Militarism and Naval Arms Races:
D. THE SPECIFIC cause of the Great War involved the assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary on 28 June 1914 by a Serbian radical who hoped to pave the way for a greater Slavic state separate from the Dual Monarchy.
1. The Black Hand:
2. Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic:
3. A plot of seven assassins:
4. Serbian counter-terrorist failings:
5. The tragic encounter at Sarajevo:
6. Gaurilo Princip:
E. DIPLOMATIC FAILURES: At first, the tragic event seemed just one more problem in the Balkans and key leaders, bureaucrats and diplomats hurried away to their annual summer vacations to avoid the stifling July heat of the assorted capital cities. By the time the first team of power brokers reassembled to meet the crisis head on, it was too late:
1. Austrian Intrigue:
2. Wilhelm's blank check:
3. The Austrian ultimatum (23 July 1914):
4. Serbian acceptance with reservations (25 July 1914):
5. Der Tag (28 July 1914)
6. The Willy - Nicky Letters:
F. MOBILIZATION OF FORCES: Because of the vast sizes of the 1914 forces which made all of Europe an armed camp, each country jockeyed for position so as not to be left behind at the starting gate, should any conflict break out. More than anything else, the perceived necessity to have mobilization well in hand, heightened and strengthened the downward slide to war on a scale never anticipated.
1. Partial Austrian mobilization against Serbia (25 July 1914)
2. Partial Russian mobilization against Austria (29 July 1914)
3. Full Russian & Austrian mobilization (30 July 1914)
4. The German ultimatum to France (31 July 1914)
5. German & French declarations and mobilizations (01 August 1914)
6. Extension of the process to allied nations:
G. WAR GUILT: Years ago, one of my students asked me if I was going to blame her great-great grandfather for the World War. I assured her that I had read my history from several different perspectives and that I accepted the observations of the American historian S.L.A. Marshall in this regard: "The unthinkable happened because in each of the Great States, leaders did certain things that inflamed the crisis, or failed to do things that might have eased it. All shared in some degree the responsibility for the general failure." Marshall, SLA. The American Heritage History of WWI. page 25.
H. PREPARATIONS & RESOURCES: At the end of July, The New York Times printed the following chart:
1. The Armies: While the organization of Regiments, Brigades, Divisions and Corps were very similar, the human building blocks of the national armies were of different stock, with different standards of training and in some cases, badly uniformed or worse armed. On the Austro-Russian front it was simply a case of which system would crack and collapse first - since neither power was noted for the brilliance of its officer class nor for having first class equipment issued to its troops. The British of course, began with a crack compliment of "Old Contemptibles" who could out march, out shoot and out fight any force of near equal size. However, the Western Front began with the French holding ninety per cent of the line. And given the insane bayonet assaults against machine guns, almost one-third of French casualties during the war occurred within the first three months of the conflict.
Nation
Regulars
Reserves
Total
Unorganized
Austria-Hungary
390,000
1,610.000
2,000,000
3,000,000
German Empire
870,000
4,430,000
5,200,000
1,000,000
TOTAL:
1,260,000
6,040,000
7,200,000
4,000,000
Russian Empire
1,290,000
3,300,000
5,500,000
5,200,000
French Republic
720,000
3,280,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
United Kingdom
254,500
476,500
730,000
2,000,000
Kingdom of Serbia
32,000
208,000
240,000
60,000
Montenegro
50,000
TOTAL:
2,346,500
7,264,500
10,470,000
8,260,000
The New York Times. 29 July 1914, page 4.
2. Naval Power: While it is true that the newly designed Dreadnought, at the turn of the century, did indeed turn Naval affairs upside down, nevertheless it was the naval arms race between the Kaiser's High Seas Fleet and the British Grand Fleet based at home, that defined the competition. As it was, both nations almost spent themselves into the poor house amassing so many new ships in so few years! However, as the war proved - a fleet in being is more important than a fleet risked unnecessarily. While there was some minimal sparing - neither side was willing to risk their capital ships in a slug fest reminiscent of the great battles of history.
United Kingdom
German Empire
Dreadnought Battleships
20
14
Battle Cruisers
9
4
Pre-dreadnought Battleships
39
22
Armored Cruisers
34
9
Cruisers
64
41
Destroyers
301
144
Submarines
65
28
3. Air Power: Aero-planes & Dirigibles: Since the Wright brothers had only developed the heavier than air planes eleven years before, all sides began the war with glorified kites held together with burlap and wire. At first, some pilots were not allowed to have parachutes because without one they were more likely to try and bring down their expensive plane in one piece! Reality soon persuaded the leaders of the Air Corps that a trained, experienced pilot was indeed more valuable than the plane!
Aero-planes
Dirigibles
German Empire
384
30
French Republic
136
10
United Kingdom
63
Kingdom of Belgium
24
4. Other Considerations.
a. Rail net: Before the war, German farmers along the Western borders complained about the incredible waste that had been spent on all of those useless railroad sidings built in their once fertile fields. No matter, when mobilization began - those sidings that in some cases had been waiting twenty years or more, became the busiest rail heads in the whole world. The German military had spent a fortune getting the infrastructure ready for the mad dash across Belgium in order to take Paris within twelve weeks. The planning had been so thorough that trains ran along the main lines towards the border area ten minutes apart for the better part of a month. The General Staff officer at headquarters who waited by the telephone to answer questions hardly had to intervene. By contrast, when the French Army mobilized - too many of the railway employees had been called up and chaos reigned for several days until the military authorities ordered them out of the Army and back to work. The paranoid Russians had left a 150 mile none communications zone along their military frontiers. The idea being that if there were no means of transport linking with an enemy country, it would be that much more difficult for the Germans to invade. Also, Russian railways were a non-standard gauge. So wherever there were railway links with the western powers, it would be impossible for enemy trains to use Russian railroads until they had been completely rebuilt to the Western European standard gauge.
b. Military Organization: Since the time of Napoleon, the Germans had been developing their "Great General Staff" of well educated professional military careerists. These "battle managers" worked for the commanders, and gave advice to make the plans of the Generals possible. Thus, it was not unlikely that when the Hindenburg/Luddendorf team took over the German military that Luddendorf had the most part in the dictatorship which they exercised together. Other countries had imitated the German principles since the stunning victories of 1866 and 1870. However, only the British seemed to have gotten many of the concepts correct - and these concepts were hardly institutionalized anywhere but in the original British Expeditionary Force. Once that magnificent body of officers and men were buried in Flanders - the Imperial forces struggled along to make ends meet none too better than their other allies.
c. Economic Power: In 1914 there were in reality three great economic powers in the world. Britain's financial acumen, industrial base and shipping industry was the envy of the world. However, the technological innovations of the late developed German industry was slightly ahead of the British, whose industries were still working in original buildings and corporations of an earlier generation. German, chemistry, optics and carburetors were the most advanced in the world. In fact, were it not for the allied ability to purchase German carburetors through the neutral states, it is doubtful if allied aircraft could have finally dominated the air over the battlefields. The Germans needed the foreign exchange too badly to shut them off. The American economy had plenty of infrastructure built to meet the production required of all the allies when the war began. In addition, American agriculture was able to feed the allied populations when Britain was stretched to feed its islanders and almost a third of French fields were tied up in the battle front stretching from Switzerland to the Channel coast. As it turned out, Germany was finally unable to feed itself and mobilize its economy for war at the same time. In the last winter of the war (1918-1919) almost a million and a half Germans died of starvation because of the continuing British naval blockade.
d. Artillery Technology: The French Army had developed a quick firing 75 mm gun which was light enough to keep up with the Infantry to sustain the assault. While they did have some heavier Artillery up to 210 mm, the heavy guns were discounted for their lack of mobility. The German's lightest piece was a 77 mm which could fire capture 75 mm shells, while the reverse was not possible. All active Divisions and Corps also had a good selection of 105 mm and 150 mm guns. The Austrians had a limited quantity of 305 mm guns, several batteries of which were loaned to the Germans for the invasion of Belgium. When the war broke out, seven experimental 420 mm guns were rushed straight from the factory. Several were mounted on railway carriages and a couple were even broken down into parts and dragged down the highways with eighty-horse hitches. The guns were so heavy that Infantry had to pick and move metaled road pieces to keep the guns moving. While the British had a good rapid fire light gun, the heavies were woefully under developed. Russia, unfortunately did not have much of a native capability to manufacture modern artillery and at the battle of Tannenburg, they even lost one sixth of the weapons they did possess.
e. Uniforms: British colonial forces has slowly been drifting away from Bright Red jackets for a decade before the Boer War. Experiences in that conflict resulted in a wide-spread conversion to a field uniform of khaki. In 1910 the Germans had adopted a Feldgrau camouflage uniform for their armies. Austo-Hungarians wore a steel-gray field uniform. Russian forces may have worn a variety of green, white and brown uniforms. The Belgians were content in a dark blue color. The French debated a camouflage uniform of red, white and blue threads in 1911. However, the debate was passionate and with the battle cry: "Le pantaloons rouge, C'est La France", the French military were sent into combat with uniforms more suited to the Napoleonic wars. French cavalry galloped into battle with highly polished, heavy metal cuirasses which sparkled in the sunlight and even failed to stop bullets.
f. Attitude: "Offensive a Outrance!"
I. MILITARY READINESS: "The high state of discipline, training, leadership, and armament of the German Army reduced the significance of the initial numerical inferiority of the armies of the Central Powers. Due to the comparative slowness of mobilization, poor leadership, and lower scale of armament of the Russian Armies, there was an approximate balance of forces in August 1914 which prevented one side from gaining a quick victory." ERM. "World Wars", Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol 23, page 692.
1. Pre War Planning:
a. The Schlieffen Plan: "The basic problem which the plan had to meet was that a two front war, in which Germany and Austria-Hungary faced Russia on the east and France on the west _ a combination whose forces were numerically superior although separated from one another." ERM. "World Wars", Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol 23, page 693.
b. Plan Seventeen: "The Notorious Plan 17, which the French adopted in May 1913, was fatally flawed due to a serious miscalculation of German strength and intentions." Davis. "World War 1", Strategy & Tactics. # 51, page 12.
c. The Russian Steamroller. "The French, ... urged the Russians to deliver a simultaneous attack against Germany ... an extra offensive for which they were neither ready in numbers nor organized. ... Russia, whose proverbial slowness and crude organization dictated a cautious strategy, was about to break with tradition and launch out on a gamble that only an army of high mobility and organization could have hoped to bring off. ERM. "World Wars", Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol 23, page 696.
J. OPENING BATTLES:
1. The Battle for Belgium:
a. Liege:
b. Mons:
2. First Battle of the Marne:
3. Tannenberg:
K. THE WESTERN FRONT:
1. Race to the Sea (1914):
2. Second Battle of Ypres (1915):
3. Bloodbath on the Somme: (1916): Once the British New Armies of Kitchener's war plan were ready, they were sent forward in their innocence to the most notorious day in all of World War One. Since so few of the new soldiers had any battle experience, they simply walked in their scattered lines forward against the German machine guns. While a few yards of enemy trenches were taken here and their, it was at a terrible cost. The brand new soldiers suffered 60,000 dead before darkness gave them some relief.
4. Battle for Verdun (1916): As if to prove that the war would go to the country with the last man standing, the German commander Falkenhayn decided on a battle of attrition. He proposed an attack upon a French fortress that the French could not afford to lose. Thus, the reasoning went, the French Army could be bled white and since the Germans had a larger population base, the French would run out of reinforcements and replacements more quickly than the Germans would. As it was, three-quarters of the French Army went through the "meat-grinder" in the months long battle in and around Verdun. The fortress held, and casualties numbered well over a million men! When I was in Verdun in 1968, I noticed that none of the trees were old or tall. After all, there had only been forty years for recovery. I walked by the church where a plastered over shell had exploded in the 1950's killing and maiming two dozen or more Sunday worshippers!
5. Battle of Cambrai:
6. Year of Crisis (1917): Three dramatic events marked the fourth year of the war. The Russian military system collapsed from its own mismanagement. Significant numbers of French Divisions were mutinous, promising to defend their positions, but refusing to go over the top and attack. Last and probably most significant - the Americans (no matter how unready they were) came into the war. An American Colonel achieved immortality when he uttered the now famous words "Layfatte, we are here!".
7. Kaiserschlacht - The German Offensives (1918): Hoping to take advantage of the lack of shipping available to bring the Yanks over there, the Germans transferred a hundred battle hardened divisions from the Eastern Front, and in the spring launched what we would call it "The Emperor's Battle". One whole British Army was badly handled and the German formations pressed on towards the Marne River. Since this action threatened Paris - General Pershing offered Field Marshal Foch the use of American Divisions. The Third Infantry Division in particular distinguished itself in the defense of the Marne and ever after has been nicknamed "The Marne Division." In spite of massive assaults, the power of the German Army was not sufficient to win the war before the Americans arrived.
8. St Mihil Offensive (1918):
9. General Allied Offensive (1918):
10. All Quiet on the Western Front (11 November 1914): At 1100 hours on the morning of the eleventh of November - the guns fell silent and the war was all but over. Sadly, the last few days before the Armistice saw a lot of ammunition being fired off, because if it wasn't, somebody would have to load it all up and move it somewhere else. Thus the political public relations of the symbolic Eleventh Hour's ending caused a final week's worth of casualties just so that insignificant date 1100, 11 November 1918 could be counted ever after as a Memorial to the fallen stupidity of mankind.
L. THE EASTERN FRONT:
1. Battles in Galacia:
2. Invasion of Poland (1915):
3. Brusilov Offensive (1916):
4. Rumania destroyed (1916):
5. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1917):
M. THE ITALIAN FRONT:
1. Why the Italians fought:
2. Eleven Battles for the Isonzo:
3. Battle of Caperetto (1917):
N. WORLD WIDE FRONTS:
1. African colonies:
a. Deutsche Ost Afrika:
b. Die Kamaroonen:
c. Deutsche Sud West Afrika:
2. Asian colonies:
a. Kiaochow
b. The Caroline Islands:
3. The Middle East:
a. Goeben & Breslau:
b. Turkey joins the Central Powers:
c. Lawrence of Arabia:
d. The Gallipolis Campaign:
4. The Balkans:
a. Serbia (1914-1915):
b. Greece & Salonika:
O. WAR AT SEA AND IN THE AIR:
1. The British Blockade:
2. The Battle of Jutland (31 May 16):
3. German Unterseeboote:
4. Air Reconnaissance (1914):
5. Fighter Aircraft 1915:
6. Strategic Bombing & First Aircraft Carrier:
P. PERSONALITIES OF THE CONFLICT: By no means a complete list, but selective to note the more important personages who participated in the administration and generalship of the Great War.
Brusilov, Alexei Alexeevich: (1853-1926) Russian commander known for being competent in the field. Raised to command the South-Western Front in March 1916, he led the last great attack on the Eastern Front by a Russian Army. Appointed as commander-in-chief after the revolution, his fortune declined along with the abilities of the Russian armed forces.
Cadorna, Luigi - Count : (1850-1928) Italian Chief of Staff in 1914. Leading the Italian forces in eleven battles of the Isonzo, his reputation was clouded in the great defeat at Caporetto, after which he served briefly on the Supreme War Council.
Coburg, Albert I - King of the Belgians: (1875-1934) When hostilities began, he took command of his army. During the war he remained with the troops, visiting the front line frequently. In the final offensive he commanded an allied Northern Army Group.
Conrad von Hotzendorf, Franz - Count: (1852-1925) Austrian Field Marshal. As Chief of Staff from 1906, he was responsible for reorganization and modernization of the imperial forces. Counted as a master strategist, he was never able to realize success from his grand plans. In March 1917 he was relieved and posted to a command in the South Tyrol.
Foch, Ferdinand: (1851-1920) French Field Marshal. He began the war in command of the French XX Corps, rose to command the French Ninth Army, then the Northern Army Group by January 1915. By the end of the war he was the supreme Allied commander-in-chief, conducting the final attacks upon the German forces through to the Armistice.
George V - King of Great Britain: (1865-1936) Always the constitutional monarch, working with the Parliamentary leaders, he visited the industrial workers on the home front and with a steady manner of encouragement earned the respect of his nation.
Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer - Sir: (1874-1965) British Statesman. Working in the Admiralty when the war began - he was instrumental in preparing the fleet for action. Discredited in the Dardenelles campaign - he served for a time as Lieutenant Colonel of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers. Returning to Parliament when his battalion was merged with another, he was appointed to be Minister of Munitions in 1917 and Secretary of War in 1919 to handle demobilization.
Clemenceau, Georges: (1841-1929) French Statesman. By his determination and perseverance he urged his country on to victory. In 1914 he edited news privately while serving as a Senator. In 1917, the year of crisis, Clemenceau was asked to form a government. Serving as both Premier and Minister of War he worked tirelessly to restore the nation's self-confidence and press the military towards final victory. Following the Armistice he devoted himself to the international settlement.
Emmanuel, Victor III - King of Italy: (1869-1947) With a military education, he helped involve Italy in the war against the Central Powers. Once fighting began, he lived in the war zone. Nominally in command, he never interfered with the conduct of operations or in the matter of appointments.
Gallieni, Joseph Simon: (1849-1916) French Military Governor of Paris. Recalled from retirement and politically assigned to the rear area. However, the war came to him and he is credited with the success saving Paris in the First Battle of the Marne. Raised to the position of War Minister in October 1915, health and politics quickly sidelined him until his death.
Habsburg-Lothringen, Franz Josef Karl I - Kaiser of Austria-Hungary: (1830 -1916) Beloved and competent monarch over Central Europe for sixty-eight years. Brought unwillingly into the world conflagration that would destroy his family's empire, he worked energetically to manage the military and domestic affairs of state throughout the last two years of his life.
Haig, Alexander: (1861-1928) British Field Marshal. He began the war in command of I Corps (BEF) then took command of the whole Expeditionary Force in December of 1915. While not considered innovative nor brilliant in his tactics - he hung in the conflict in typical British Bulldog fashion. In the last months of the war his attritional policies carried the day when the German Army was finally exhausted.
Hindenburg, Paul Ludwig - von Beneckendorf und von: (1847-1934) German Field Marshal called out of retirement to command the German Eighth Army on the East Front in 1914. Promoted to Chief of the General Staff in August 1916 where he coordinated all the German Armies until the end of the war.
Hohenzollern, Friedrich William Victor Albert II- Kaiser of Germany: (1859-1941 ) His genuine desire for peace always prevailed in the last resort up to 1914. Having become embroiled in the continental struggle through his "blank check" given to the Austrians, he was not prepared to give decisive leadership to the struggle. By 1916, the Hindenburg and Ludendorff team were firmly in control until the failure of the offensives in the summer of 1918. At the advice of Hindenburg himself, William crossed the Dutch border into exile.
Jellico, John Rushworth: (1859-1935) British Admiral commanding the Grand Fleet from 1914 through the battle O Jutland. "Promoted" to First Sea Lord, relieved and finally appointed Admiral of the Fleet.
Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire: "Papa" (1851-1931) French Chief of General Staff from 1911. He helped to formulate Plan XVII. Promoted Marshal of France in December 1916 he was president of the Supreme War Council through to the end of the war.
Kerenski, Aleksandr Fedorovich: (1881-1970) Russian Political Leader. As head of the provisional government from July to November 1917, he Labored to keep Russia in the war and to organize an effective democratic style government. During the Bolshevik takeover he was able to escape to the western powers, where he lived in exile for the rest of his life.
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert - 1st Earl of Khartoum: (1850-1916) British Field Marshal. Appointed War Minister in 1914. He was the first to foresee the true length of the war and began plans for an enlarged British and Commonwealth Army to be fielded on the continent of Europe. He drowned when the ship taking him to Russia was lost at sea.
Lawrence, Thomas Edward: "Lawrence of Arabia" (1888-1935) British intelligence offer appointed as liaison with Sherif Husain of Mecca. During the conflict he encouraged an Arab guerrilla campaign against the Turkish forces in the Middle East.
Lettow-Vorbeck, Paul Emil - von: (1870-1946) German Colonel in the colonial service. In 1913 he was given command of the forces in German East Africa. Operating without any meaningful support he waged a brilliant guerrilla campaign against allied forces usually ten times superior in number.
Lloyd-George, David - 1st Earl of Dwyfor: (1863-1945) - British Prime Minister. Beginning the war as Chancellor of the Exchequer, he became in turn; Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War and in December of 1916 he became Prime Minister, from which position he vigorously applied himself to handling the various problems of waging war. After the Armistice he played a major role in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles with Clemenceau and Wilson.
Ludendorff, Erich. (1865-1937) German General. As Chief of Staff to Hindenburg, he became virtual dictator of German war policy during the last two years of the war. Becoming exhausted about the same time as the Army he led, he was forced to resign in October 1918.
Nicholas, Nikolai Nikolaevich - Grand Duke: (1856-1929) Russian supreme commander in 1914. His control was limited, but he remained popular and capable within the limits imposed upon him. Removed in August of 1915, he finished the war in the Caucasus region as Governor-General.
Pasha, Enver: (1861-1922) Turkish War Minister in 1914, he successfully brought Turkey into the war as part of the Central Powers. His overweening concern with attacks in the Caucasus consumed resources that could have been better used elsewhere.
Pershing, John Joseph: "Black Jack" (1860-1948) American Commanding General. Appointed to command the (AEF) from May 1917 through to the end of the war. His most difficult task was keeping a separate American Army in being and preparing it for action as quickly as possible with borrowed allied equipment.
Poincare, Raymond: (1860-1934) French statesman, President and Premier. Elected president in January 1913, he was enroute home from Russia when the war broke out. Throughout the war he did his job enthusiastically but discreetly, never transgressing the narrow limits of his constitutional powers. Differences of opinion between him and Clemenceau marred the last years of the war and during the peace negotiations.
Putnik, Radomir: (1847-1917) Serbian Chief of Staff. He proved more than a match for the Austrian forces until Bulgarian and German forces overwhelmed the Serbian forces. His health broken - he continued to command from a litter until his forces were evacuated by sea. He did not survive the war.
Rasputin, Grigori Efimovich: "The Mad Monk" (187?-1916) Attaining prominence as a "holy man and mystic", he gained access to the Imperial Court through the sympathy of the tsarevitch. For some time he and the tsarevitch ruled over domestic policy. Rasputin (which means "debauchee"), encouraged corruption in the court and helped to alienate public opinion. In an attempt to save the monarchy from itself, conservative members of the court, poisoned, shot, stabbed and drowned Rasputin. All to no avail as the revolution swept everything away.
Richthoven: Manfred - Freiherr von: "The Red Baron" (1892 -1918) German Rittmeister turned fighter pilot. He was Germany's ace of aces. During the course of the Great War he shot down at least eighty confirmed enemy fighters. with another three possible credits. Late in the war he commanded "The Flying Circus", a German air group which was moved to various areas of the front where control of the air was desired.
Rickenbacker, Edward Vernon: (1890- ) US Army Captain. One of the top three automotive racers in America when the war broke out, he went overseas as a driver for Pershing's headquarters. Transferring to the fledgling Air Corps he proved to be a natural fighter pilot and ended the war as America's outstanding "ace".
Romanov, Nikolai II Czar of all the Russias: (1868-1918) The last Czar was not a forceful person, who still believed in his "God-given" right to rule autocratically. Caught up in a reluctant enthusiasm for the war, he stopped the sale of Vodka for the duration, unfortunately the Vodka tax was a major source of revenue for the state. Many other decisions were similar in outcome. To his credit, he and the Kaiser of Germany exchanged a series of telegrams before the war began in a desperate search to avoid the conflict.
Tirpitz, Alfred - von: (1849-1930) German Grand Admiral. He was the father of the German Navy, however, he urged peace in 1914 and was removed from office in March 1916 and largely marginalized politically for the duration of the war.
Wilson, Thomas Woodrow: (1856-1924) President of the United States. Initially Wilson stood by a formal proclamation of neutrality. In 1915 he warned the German government that destruction of American property and lives would be an "indefensible violation of neutral rights." The continuing submarine campaign against shipping and the Zimmerman telegram hastened American entry into the war. Wilson is best remembered for his fourteen points and his tireless efforts to establish a League of Nations, to insure world peace.
York, Alvin Cullum: (1887-1964) An Army of the United States Sergeant. He earned his Medal of Honor during the Meuse-Argonne campaign in the operation designed to rescue the "Lost Battalion." He served with Company G, 2nd Battalion, 328th Infantry Regiment, 82nd "All American" Infantry Division. A crack shot, he is credited with capturing 132 Germans, killing 25 and silencing 35 machine guns.
Biographical Resources include: Encyclopedia Britannica, The World War One Source Book, and Over There: The United States in the Great War.
Q. THE UNITED STATES & THE WAR: When the war broke out the American public was somewhat divided in sympathy, thus it took several years and a series of provocations to bring us into the conflict. Wilson himself, was even re-elected with the slogan "He kept us out of war." However, when we were drawn in, the economic and material powers of the country were unleashed and by the end of the war we had approximately Two million men over there, with almost as many being trained to reinforce them.
1. True Neutrality: While this concept was not considered in America, Winston Churchill later wrote that if America, had insisted that it would not do business with any of the warring parties, the war would probably been negotiated to a peaceful end before 1915 was over.
2. Actual Neutrality: Idealistically, the first option probably never had a chance! As it was, we offered weapons, munitions and foodstuffs on a cash and carry basis. Any ship from any country could call at an American port and purchase almost any item they wished. Until the middle of the war specialized German merchant submarines were visiting major ports to purchase crucial commodities for transport home.
3. American Trading Rights & British Blockade: In 1915, American shippers were outraged that the British blockaders would force American ships into allied ports to deny deliver of war goods to Germans. Some ships were even denied access to neutral ports with certain cargoes. There was a brief flirtation with the idea of joining the conflict against Great Britain. An idea that was popular especially with Irish-Americans.
4. The Battle for the Atlantic. Since the British Isles could only grow enough food for a population of eleven million, the balance of the population had to be fed by imports. Thus, the necessary lifelines by sea to world markets for imports as well as production exports. At one point during the unrestricted submarine phase of the war, there was only a six week supply of food on hand. This was solved in two ways, convoys were finally instituted and a public relations ploy was made for American sympathy.
a. Restricted Submarine use: This is the legal concept used at the beginning of the war by the majority of German Submarine Captains. In this context, a submarine would surface and fire a gun across the bow of a merchantman. When the merchant ship hove to - a boarding party would look at the ship's manifest and if war material were discovered, the crew would be ordered into life boats before the ship was sunk. The Germans would than radio the location of the life boats before submerging and leaving the area. British Q-boats and armed Merchantmen quickly made this an unhealthy option.
b. Unrestricted Submarine use: The Germans tried several types of unrestricted Submarine use when confronted with the strategic need to equalize the trade embargo maintained by the British Navy's blockade of German ports. For a while, only ships flying belligerent flags were sunk, but since any flag of convenience can be run up a flag pole - this did not work. The final solution was to declare a war-zone of two hundred miles around the allied countries and declare that any ship that entered could be sunk on sight. This was especially unpopular with American merchants.
c. The Lusitania (07 May 15) When the SS Lusitania was sunk, over a thousand passengers were drowned, many of them American citizens. The Germans defended their action because they claimed evidence that munitions were loaded in New York City. The British claimed that they were not that irresponsible and that while there were medical supplies on board - that was an acceptable humanitarian cargo. In the late seventies, American divers happened upon the ship and supposedly found that the shipping crates marked bandages did indeed contain munitions! Even before the Lusitania sailed, the Germans had advertised in New York City papers that she was a marked ship because of the war material supposedly on board.
5. The Zimmermann Telegram: This telegram to the German embassy in Mexico City was intercepted by British intelligence. Since the German Atlantic cable had been purposely cut the first night of the war by the British Navy, All German diplomatic traffic to the New World had to pass through Sweden and then England to get across the Atlantic. While British intelligence knew exactly what was being sent, they had to devise a way for American code breakers to intercept the message in the United States That was accomplished and when the text of the document was leaked to the press, the proverbial fertilizer hit the ventilator and the "yellow press" had a field day. This on top of mercantile concerns, the Lusitania and growing dissatisfaction with German intentions was the last straw.
6. Steps toward participation.
a. Arming of Merchant Ships:
b. Declaration of War:
c. US Naval actions:
d. The American Expeditionary Force: While the Regular Army had already been expanded fourfold, and expeditiously sent out on a border crusade to protect the American southwest from Mexican revolutionaries, it was still a major achievement to send the First Infantry Division "Big Red One" over there as quickly as we did. In order to send the Second Infantry Division, every spare Marine that could be found was sent along as a round out brigade. Other Divisions followed as they were able.
R. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR:
1. The Treaty of Versailles (1919):
2. The Treaty of St-Germain-en-Laye (1919).
3. Major Political Consequences.
4. Major Economic Consequences.
5. Emotional and Perception Consequences.
S. BIBLIOGRAPHY: While this is a selective bibliography, I have found the following works very helpful. Very many of the books on my shelf have been purchased since the college papers at this web site were written in 1970-1971. As time and providence allow, I will try to go back and rework those thirty year old papers and take account of what I have learned since then!
- Barnes, R Money. Imperial Services Library IX: The British Army of 1914. (London: Seeley Service & Company, 1968)
- Barthorp & Turner. Elite Series 24: The Old Contemptibles. (London: Osprey, 1989
- Chappell, Mike. Men-at-Arms 164: The Canadian Army at War. (London: Osprey, 1985)
- Chappell, Mike. Men-at-Arms 182: British Battle Insignia (1) 1914-1918). (London, Osprey, 1986)
- Copeland, Peter F. World War I Uniforms Coloring Book. (London: Dover Publications, 1978)
- Embleton & Sumner. Men-at-Arms 286: The French Army 1914-1918. (London: Osprey, 1995)
- Esposito, Vincent J. The West Point Atlas of American Wars II 1900-1953. (New York: Frederick A Praeger Publishers, 1959)
- Farwell, Byron. Over There: The United States in the Great War 1917-1918. (New York: W W Norton & Company, 1999)
- Ferguson, Niall. The Pity of War. (Great Britain: Basic Books, 1999)
- Fosten, Marrion & Embleton. Men-at-Arms 80: The German Army 1914-1918. (London: Osprey, 1978)
- Fosten, Marrion & Embleton. Men-at-Arms 81: The British Army 1914-1918. (London: Osprey, 1978)
- Gilbert, Martin. The First World War: A Complete History. (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1994)
- Glenny, Michael. Alexander Solzhenitsyn: August 1914. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1972
- Hart, B H Liddell. The Real l War 1914-1918. (Boston: Little Brown & Company, 1930)
- Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Campaign Series 8: Gallipoli 1915. (London: Osprey, 1991)
- Haythornthwaite, Philip J. The World War One Source Book. (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1993)
- HQS DA. ROTCM 145-20: American Millitary History 1607-1958. (Washington: Department of the Army, 1959)
- Henry & Pavlovic. Men-at-Arms 327: US Marine Corps in World War I 1914-1918. (London: Osprey, 1999)
- Hoffschmidt & Tantum. German Army and Navy Uniforms & Insignia 1871-1918. (Old Greenwich: WE Inc, 1968)
- Jablonski, Edward. A Pictorial History of the World War 1 Years.
- Katcher, Philip. Men-at-Arms 230: The U S Army 1890-1920. (London: Osprey, 1990)
- Keegan, John. Opening Moves August 1914. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1971)
- Keegan, John. The First World War. (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1999)
- Kreidberg & Henry. DA 20-212: History of Military Mobilization in the United States Army 1775-1945. (Washington: Department of the Army, 1955)
- Lomas, David. Campaign Series 58: First Ypres 1914 - The Graveyard of the Old Contemptibles. (London: Osprey, 1999)
- London, Charles. Campaign 72: Jutland 1916. (London, Osprey, 2000)
- Lucas, J S. Austro-Hungarian Infantry 1914-1918. (New York: Almark Publishing, 1973)
- MacDonald, Lyn. 1914. (New York: Atheneum, 1988)
- MacDonald, Lyn. 1915: The Death of Innocence. (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1993)
- MacDonald, Lyn. To the Last Man: Spring 1918. (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1998)
- Marshall, S L A. The American Heritage History of World War I. (New York: American Heritage Publishing Company, 1964)
- Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought, Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War. (New York: Random House, 1991)
- Mollo & Turner. Army Uniforms of World War 1. (New York: Arco Publishing Company, 1978)
- Nash, David. German Infantry 1914-1918. (London: Almark Publishing, 1971)
- Nicolle & Ruggeri. Men-at-Arms 269: The Ottoman Army 1914-1918. (London: Osprey, 1994)
- Rankin, Robert H. Helmets and Headdress of the Imperial German Army 1870-1918. (Publication Data Unrecorded)
- Title, Dale. The Day the Red Baron Died. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1970)
- Toland, John. No Man's Land 1918 - The Last Year of the Great War. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1980)
- Tuchman, Barbara W. The Guns of August. (New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1962)
- Tuchman, Barbara W. The Zimmermann Telegram. (New York: Bantam Books, 1971)
- Westlake & Chappell. Men-at-Arms 245: British Territorial Units 1914-1918) (London: Osprey, 1991)
- Winter & Baggett. The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century. (New York: Penguin Studio, 1996)
- Wolf, Leon. In Flanders Fields: The 1917 Campaign. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1958)
