"The entire theory of organization rests upon the principle of individual responsibility and subordination, so that, no matter how small or how great the number of individuals gathered together, some one is responsible, to whom the others must be subordinate." 1
Unashamed of military power, the nations of the world at the turn of the century were very much interested in the aspects of military science. The Army Staffs of the several powers examined their military machines and experimented freely, in order that their armies might maneuver with the least amount of difficulty. The concern for proper control led to the development of minutely organized forces. In general, the forces were similar. However, there were differences, which will be considered in this paper. Since data is difficult to unearth, I will restrict myself to considering only those powers involved on the Western Front, namely: Great Britain, Belgium, France and Germany in the fall of 1914.
INFANTRY COMPANIES: Of first consideration will be the Infantry Company. As information regarding the Belgians is very sketchy, they will not be considered on this level. Indeed, the strength's of platoons are mostly conjecture. Basically the German Infantry Company was better controlled because of the fewer platoons, yet with a larger number of men it was at the same time somewhat unwieldy.
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British Company 2 |
German Company 2 |
French Company 2 |
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245 men total |
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261 men total |
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250 men |
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Platoon |
Platoon |
Platoon |
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Platoon |
Squad |
Squad |
Platoon |
Squad |
Squad |
Platoon |
Squad |
Squad |
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Platoon |
Section |
Platoon |
Section |
Platoon |
Section |
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Platoon |
Section |
Section |
Platoon |
Section |
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59 men |
27 men |
12 men |
80 men |
37 men |
17 men |
57 men |
26 men |
12 men |
These formations were only partially active army (full time professional) in the German and French Armies as opposed to the regular composition of the British Expeditionary Force. For this reason the British Infantry Company was the best of the lot, although they were considerably fewer available.3
INFANTRY BATTALIONS & REGIMENTS: The companies were then organized into battalions of four companies, with the French being less strict in allowing from three to six or more companies in a battalion. With the exception of the British, The regiment was the next step, again the French were less strict than the Germans.
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Belgian Regiment 4 |
British Battalion 6 |
German Regiment |
French Regiment 7 |
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HQS |
2345 men |
5 mg |
5 |
HQS |
3400 men |
6 mg |
HQS |
3400 men |
6 mg |
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1 Bn |
770 men |
HQS |
1008 men |
2 mg |
1 Bn |
1072 men |
1 Bn |
1009 men |
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2 Bn |
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2 Bn |
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2 Bn |
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3 Bn |
3 Bn |
3 Bn |
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The size of the battalion was usually about a 1,000 men, with the some variations in title representing the adaptation for a specific purpose such as bicycle, light or mountain infantry. In comparison, once again the British small units compare favorably because of the professionalism of the rank and file. The German and French units were just about equal, with the Belgian's suffering the greatest inefficiency from the influx of new recruits at the beginning of the war. 4
INFANTRY BRIGADES: The brigade was the largest unit consisting of one combat arm in all the armies except Belgium, which created a combined-arms team. Perhaps the most economical brigade was the British, which avoided the addition of a regimental headquarters between the brigade and battalion. The Belgian Brigade, while novel, was somewhat unwieldy in management with five separate headquarters. Once again the French and Germans compare favorably.
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BELGIAN BRIGADE 4 |
BRITISH BRIGADE |
GERMAN BRIGADE |
FRENCH BRIGADE |
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MP Platoon |
Infantry Battalion |
Infantry Regiment |
Infantry Regiment |
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MG Company |
Infantry Battalion |
Infantry Regiment |
Infantry Regiment |
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Infantry Regiment |
Infantry Battalion |
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Infantry Regiment |
Infantry Battalion |
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Artillery Group |
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5,100 men |
4,050 men & 8 mg |
7,200 men & 12 mg |
7,200 men & 12 mg |
CAVALRY ORGANIZATION: The second combat arm which deserves our attention is the Cavalry, which was weighted down by tradition and obsolete weapons. The basic unit was the squadron which was comparable to an infantry company in size. The battalion had no place in the Cavalry Regiment, since the squadrons as often as not operated independently. Three to four squadrons made up a regiment. The brigade was again the largest unit of a single arm, with the British deviating slightly with the inclusion of a signal detachment. Once again the British enjoyed superiority against similar units, since they were more willing to act as mounted infantry. Also, the realistic equipment of rifles and khaki uniforms were more adapted to modern warfare than the French cuirasses or the German lance.
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BELGIAN BRIGADE |
BRITISH BRIGADE |
GERMAN BRIGADE |
FRENCH BRIGADE 8 |
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HQS |
1200 men |
HQS |
1718 men |
6 mg |
HQS |
1480 men |
HQS |
1500 men |
2 mg |
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Regt |
Regt |
Regt |
Regt |
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Regt |
Regt |
572 men each |
Regt |
Regt |
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Regt |
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600 men each |
Signal Detachment |
720 men each |
682 men each |
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ARTILLERY UNITS: The third combat arm to be considered is the Artillery. Since each power used a different organization, they will be considered separately. 9
The German Artillery was divided into four types which included: Field Artillery (77 mm and 105mm guns)9, Foot Artillery (150 mm guns), Heavy Artillery (210 to 420 mm howitzers and guns), and specialized Horse Artillery with extra horse teams to keep up with the Cavalry.
The British Artillery establishment was divided into three types which included: Field Artillery, Horse Artillery and Garrison Artillery.
The Belgium Artillery consisted of a basic Group of either field or horse artillery.
The French Artillery was composed of two types, field and heavy, plus horse, which was essentially field artillery.
Because of the larger caliber, the Germans outgunned the Allies considerably. They provided for Artillery at the division, Corps, Field Army and Army Group levels. Close behind are the British, and surprisingly the Belgians compare with the French, perhaps not in quality, but in quantity of guns per division. The French were marked with a very light artillery establishment.
COMBAT SUPPORT UNITS: A consideration of the various supporting units will show many similarities. Perhaps the Germans had the best Engineers, the British had the best supply system and the French had the best aviation system.
COMBAT DIVISIONS: The division was made up of brigades of infantry, Cavalry and artillery plus smaller units of engineers, signal detachments, aviation, etc. The following chart best illustrates the division strengths:
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4TH INFANTRY DIVISION |
1ST CAVALRY DIVISION |
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60 guns |
Total: 22,150 |
12 guns |
Total: 4,500 |
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Infantry: |
18,600 |
Infantry: |
770 |
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Cavalry: |
600 |
Cavalry: |
3,000 |
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Artillery: |
2,250 |
Artillery: |
600 |
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Support Troops: |
700 |
Support Troops: |
730 |
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A quick comparison of strength figures would evaluate the Belgian 4th Infantry Division best.10 But, it must be remembered that the Belgian's only had two divisions of this size, the other four had only about 16,750 men. Also these divisions were largely composed of reservists and recruits. They also lacked equipment, especially camping and communications equipment. A lack of machine guns is quite evident, there being only 102 in the whole Belgian Army.
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2ND INFANTRY DIVISION |
1ST CAVALRY DIVISION |
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24 mg 76 guns |
Total: 18,000 |
24 mg 36 guns |
Total: 9,200 |
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Infantry: |
12,165 |
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Cavalry: |
159 |
Cavalry: |
6,872 |
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Artillery |
2,700 |
Artillery: |
800 |
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Support Troops: |
2,976 |
Support Troops: |
1,528 |
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A comparison of the organization charts will suffice to show the British 2nd Infantry Division as the more superior force, namely because of the of rapid rifle fire which led the Germans to assume that the British used massed machine guns during the opening battles.
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7TH INFANTRY DIVISION |
GUARD CAVALRY DIVISION 11 |
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24 mg 72 guns |
Total: 17,500 |
24 mg 12 guns |
Total: 7,000 |
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Infantry: |
14,000 |
Light Infantry: |
3,216 |
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Cavalry: |
361 |
Cavalry: |
4,440 |
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Artillery: 11 |
1,800 |
Artillery: 11 |
460 |
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Support Troops: |
1,339 |
Support Troops: |
884 |
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The German 7th Infantry Division would fall just below the British and far above the French Division mainly because of its artillery. The only thing placing the French above the Belgian Division was the possession of a superior elan. The lightness of the French artillery bordered on insanity.
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A FRENCH INFANTRY DIVISION |
A FRENCH CAVALRY DIVISION |
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24 mg 36 guns |
Total: 18,000 |
6 mg 8 guns |
Total: 5,400 |
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Infantry: |
14,400 |
Infantry: |
324 |
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Cavalry: |
150 |
Cavalry: |
4,500 |
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Artillery: |
1,125 |
Artillery: |
352 |
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Support Troops: |
2,325 |
Support Troops: |
224 |
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A comparison of the Cavalry Divisions will once again award the first prize to the British. The weight of artillery and the numbers of the Cavalry compare favorably with the Germans despite the three battalions of light infantry. The British, with their notion of using Cavalry as mounted infantry, enabled them to handle just about any enemy of equal numbers.
The Germans with their light infantry outclass the Belgian and French Cavalry Divisions. These three nations were somewhat archaic in their notions about cavalry. All used outdated equipment, and the French and Belgians wore uniforms reminiscent of the Napoleonic Wars.
Despite the superiority of the British, man for man and unit for unit, they were completely and hopelessly outnumbered. To their six infantry divisions the Germans had fifty-one, to their one cavalry divisions the Germans had eleven.
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BELGIAN |
BRITISH |
GERMAN |
FRENCH |
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Infantry Divisions |
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Cavalry Divisions |
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As we move into a comparison of the Army Corps, the excellence of the German administration makes itself felt. A Comparison boils down to this: These huge organizations were between 15 to 18 miles long when strung in marching order. It took one day to maneuver into a battle formation. In this time a lot Could happen. Since the Germans were advancing, they were at a disadvantage. The French Infantry Corps with their 36,000 infantry had a defensive advantage as long as their 75' s were not outgunned by the superior German Artillery. At this comparison, the British begin to fall into the background since the entire British Expeditionary Force numbered only three and a half Infantry Corps and one Cavalry Division. 12
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The German Infantry Corps, with its multitude of supporting units was capable of independent action, as the British with their line of communications troops were not. The French fall in between. The Belgians did not even have a Corps structure.
RESERVE FORMATIONS: The reserve system, perfected be Prussia during the 19th Century, was based on the principle that every man owed military service to the state.13 The British had seven classes of reservists, although each was relatively small and unorganized for immediate use. The Germans had five classes and the French about four classes. It was the accepted theory that only the active troops could take the field, with the reserves providing replacements or guarding the frontiers.
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The ability of the reserves was about equal between the French and the German. However, the Germans evolved a superior organization complete with artillery; a unit almost as effective as an ordinary Corps. At the outbreak of the war, the use of these reserve corps allowed the Germans to extend their line of battle through Belgium. The only thing lacking in a Reserve Corps was sufficient support and artillery units.
The French also formed several Reserve Corps, however, these were makeshift except in the case of the IR, IIR, IIIR and IVR Corps. The French Reserve Corps was composed of three Reserve Divisions. This amounted to a lot of infantry, but little else. A comparison of of the two.
There were thirteen German Reserve Corps available for mobile warfare and only four French Reserve Corps which were tied down in fortifications.
ARMIES: The German army was divided into nine field armies of unequal proportions and assigned units according to their mission. The defensive armies were composed of the local units in their corps areas. The rest assembled on the Western Front to strike a decisive blow against France.14
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WEST ARMY (Von Moltke) |
4 Cavalry Corps 4 Heavy Batteries |
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1ST ARMY (von Kluck) |
4 Active Corps 2 Reserve Corps |
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2nd ARMY (von Bulow) |
4 Active Corps 2 Reserve Corps |
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3rd ARMY (von Hausen) |
3 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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4th ARMY (Herzog von Wurteenberg) |
3 Active Corps 2 Reserve Corps |
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5th ARMY (Kronprinz des Deutschen Reiches) |
3 Active Corps 2 Reserve & 1 LW Corps |
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6th ARMY (Kronprinz von Bayern) |
4 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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7th ARMY (von Herringen |
2 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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8th (Ost) ARMY (von Beneckendorff) |
3 Active Corps 1.5 Reserve Corps 1 Cav Div |
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Nord ARMY (von Boehm |
1 Reserve Corps 1 Landwehr Corps |
The French Army was divided into seven Field Armies also of unequal proportion. They were assembled along the frontier with Germany. The Army of the Alps was on the defensive, the North African Army was on its way to France and the others were poised for the return of Alsace and Lorraine.
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GHQ (Joffre) |
1 Cavalry Corps |
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1st ARMY (Dubail) |
5 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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2nd ARMY (De Castelnau) |
5 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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3rd ARMY (Ruffey) |
3 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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4th ARMY (de Langle de Cary) |
3 Active Corps |
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5th ARMY (Lanrezac) |
5 Active Corps 1 Reserve Corps |
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North African ARMY (Lyautcy) |
5 Active Divisions |
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Alpine ARMY |
1 Active Division 4 Reserve Divisions |
The Belgian Army was deployed to resist an invasion on any front.
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THE BELGIAN ARMY (Prince Albert) |
6 Infantry Divisions & 1 Cavalry Division |
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THE BEF (French) |
2 Active Corps 2 Infantry & 1 Cavalry Divisions |
This was the situation in the early part of August 1914. Approximately 3,500,000 men were assembled to destroy each other if they could. Which Army would be successful? Each had important advantages. The British was the most professional. The German was the largest and best prepared. The Belgians were ready to die for their country. And the French, they were publishing their bayonets! Which was the best? Let History be the judge.
1 The New International Encyclopedia, Second Edition, (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co, 1915), p. 158.
2 Esposito, Vincent J., The West Point Atlas of American Wars 1689-1953, Volume II, (New York: Praeger, 1964), p. xi; and US Army Armor School, Armor Reference Data, (Fort Knox: US Army Armor School, 1967); Avalon Hill Company, 1914 Battle Manual, (Baltimore: Avalon Hill, 1968), pp. 23-27. A comparison of the foregoing resulted in the NATO style system of notation used in the original paper. In this electronic edition I have had to be content with a tables format.
3 The decisions are those of the author and are a result of careful comparison of information found in the books listed in the bibliography.
4 The size of the Belgian Army according to: Barnes, R Money, The British Army of 1914, (London: Seeley Service & Company, 1968), p. 46; and Marshall, SLA, The American Heritage History of World War I, (New York: Dell, 1966), p. 68, was 117,000 men. Yet Barnes, British Army 1914 says the size of a Belgian Division varied from 25,500 to 32,000 men. This size is impossible if we subtract 4,500 Cavalry (Barnes, BA14, p. 60) and divide by 6 Infantry Divisions we get an average of 18,750. A more accurate figure may be arrived at by dividing 93,000 Infantry (Esson, Invasion &War, p. 46) by 20 Infantry Brigades = 4,650 Infantry, 6000 Cavalry divided by 10 Cavalry Regiments = 600 and the remainder of 93,000 & 6,000 = 18,000 Artillery and Support Troops. Further mathematics allow a fair guesstimate to be made of the Belgian Army.
5 mg is the abbreviation for machine gun.
6 The British did not use the Regiment as a tactical unit. It was mainly a recruiting device, whereby new battalions inherited the traditions of a famous unit. Also the system allowed the different battalions of the regiments to be rotated from the colonies to home on a periodic basis.
7 New International Encyclopedia, Volume IX states that the French Battalion varied from 2 to 6 or more companies and that the French Regiment varied from 2 to 4 battalions, with 4 battalions being the maximum.
8 Avaolon Hill, 1914 Battle Manual, p. 24; I'm not sure how two times 682 can equal 1,500 men, even allowing for the crews for two machine guns?
9 Figures for the number of men in artillery units are very confusing. In my computations I have allowed between 150 to 200 men per battery. From this point on the caliber of the artillery unit will appear if they are known.
10 See the table above.
11 Approximately, New International Encyclopedia in its various articles sheds some minimal light on this problem.
12 Information on orders of battle recently updated from: Lomas, David. Osprey Military Campaign Series #49: Mons 1914, (London: Osprey 1997) and Miranda, Joseph. "The Battles of Mons & The Marne 1914" Strategy & Tactics, Number 186 (Lancaster: Decision Games, Jul/Aug 1997).
13 Avalon Hill, 1914 Battle Manual, p. 22.
14 Ibid., pp. 26-27.